Photovoltaics – SEIA

Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process that occurs naturally in certain types of material, called semiconductors. Electrons in these materials are freed by solar energy and can be induced to travel through an electrical circuit, powering electrical devices or sending electricity to the grid.

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PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics such as calculators and road signs up to homes and large commercial businesses.

How does PV technology work?

Photons strike and ionize semiconductor material on the solar panel, causing outer electrons to break free of their atomic bonds. Due to the semiconductor structure, the electrons are forced in one direction creating a flow of electrical current. Solar cells are not 100% efficient in crystalline silicon solar cells, in part because only certain light within the spectrum can be absorbed. Some of the light spectrum is reflected, some is too weak to create electricity (infrared) and some (ultraviolet) creates heat energy instead of electricity.
Diagram of a typical crystalline silicon solar cell. To make this type of cell, wafers of high-purity silicon are &#;doped&#; with various impurities and fused together. The resulting structure creates a pathway for electrical current within and between the solar cells.

Other Types of Photovoltaic Technology

In addition to crystalline silicon (c-Si), there are two other main types of PV technology:

• Thin-film PV is a fast-growing but small part of the commercial solar market. Many thin-film firms are start-ups developing experimental technologies. They are generally less efficient &#; but often cheaper &#; than c-Si modules.
• In the United States, concentrating PV arrays are found primarily in the desert Southwest. They use lenses and mirrors to reflect concentrated solar energy onto high-efficiency cells. They require direct sunlight and tracking systems to be most effective.
• Building-integrated photovoltaics serve as both the outer layer of a structure and generate electricity for on-site use or export to the grid. BIPV systems can provide savings in materials and electricity costs, reduce pollution, and add to the architectural appeal of a building.

History of Photovoltaic Technology

The PV effect was observed as early as by Alexandre Edmund Becquerel, and was the subject of scientific inquiry through the early twentieth century. In , Bell Labs in the U.S. introduced the first solar PV device that produced a useable amount of electricity, and by , solar cells were being used in a variety of small-scale scientific and commercial applications.

The energy crisis of the s saw the beginning of major interest in using solar cells to produce electricity in homes and businesses, but prohibitive prices (nearly 30 times higher than the current price) made large-scale applications impractical.

Industry developments and research in the following years made PV devices more feasible and a cycle of increasing production and decreasing costs began which continues even today.

Costs of Solar Photovoltaics

Rapidly falling prices have made solar more affordable than ever. The average price of a completed PV system has dropped by 59 percent over the last decade.

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Modern Photovoltaics

The cost of PV has dropped dramatically as the industry has scaled up manufacturing and incrementally improved the technology with new materials. Installation costs have come down too with more experienced and trained installers. Globally, the U.S. has the third largest market for PV installations, and is continuing to rapidly grow.

Most modern solar cells are made from either crystalline silicon or thin-film semiconductor material. Silicon cells are more efficient at converting sunlight to electricity, but generally have higher manufacturing costs. Thin-film materials typically have lower efficiencies, but can be simpler and less costly to manufacture. A specialized category of solar cells &#; called multi-junction or tandem cells &#; are used in applications requiring very low weight and very high efficiencies, such as satellites and military applications. All types of PV systems are widely used today in a variety of applications.

Attempting to harness the power from the sun, several countries have taken the lead in capturing the energy and using it as a viable source of electricity. The United States has made strides in positioning itself as one of five leaders in solar energy production, along with China, the EU, Brazil, and India as ranked by the International Energy Agency.

Although solar power was once considered a niche market, countries are proving that this source of renewable energy is a legitimate response to the world&#;s search for alternatives to fossil fuels.

1. China

As the nation with the largest population and carbon footprint, China&#;s clear commitment to renewable energy is encouraging. According to the U.S.- China Joint Glasgow Declaration in , the United States and China affirmed their commitment to work together and with other parties to strengthen the implementation of the Paris Agreement and welcome the significant efforts being made around the world to address the climate crisis. 

In , according to China's National Energy Administration, the country installed more than 105 GW of photovoltaic (PV) capacity , bringing its total installed capacity to 414 GW.

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This PV capacity is enough for China to keep its market leader position with the Chinese market representing 45% of total global installations. However, it's interesting to note that in China's market share was 52%. China's declining dominance in the market coincides with a record number of new countries installing significant PV capacity.

The majority of photovoltaic products, or solar panels, are being installed in remote areas by solar farms that sell the energy to utilities. Satellite imagery confirms the incredible growth of these enormous solar farms in China.

China&#;s drastic increase in solar power stems from the nation&#;s desperate need for electricity and its severe air pollution crisis. While some nations have curbed incentives to install solar panels, China&#;s government is aggressively encouraging financial institutions to give incentives for solar installations.

2. European Union

The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 countries and is ranked the second-largest producer of solar energy. The number of European Member States conducting auctions for solar energy has increased and has successfully driven down prices.

In , the European Union experienced growth with 41.5 GW, holding 17.6% of the market. Spain, Germany, and Poland were the key markets followed by the Netherlands, France, and Italy.

The total installed PV power capacity in the European Union surpassed 213 GW in . An estimated 55% were residential and commercial rooftop installations. Impressive, since the PV market had declined in before rising in .

3. United States

The United States has continued to improve its standing as a leader in solar power by expanding its utility sector and residential market installations. Much of the increase is attributable to substantial government incentives given to the residential sector, which is a fast-growing market segment.

In , the residential market increased while the utility sector decreased over the previous year. The total new installed capacity for came in at 21.1 GW, which brought the U.S. to 141.6 GW of cumulative installed capacity. As the cost of solar power becomes more cost-competitive with nonrenewable resources, U.S. output is expected to continue to grow in the years to come.

4. Vietnam

According to the International Energy Agency report in , Vietnam ranks as a leader in solar energy advances with an estimated 11,1 GW.

In , the government revised rates for utility-scale, rooftop, and floating PV projects and should allow further growth of the utility-scale market, leading to massive development in and , far beyond the government expectations for .

Vietnam's success was also spurred by a government policy that encouraged investment in solar energy by guaranteeing producers an above-the-market price. The policy enabled the nation to see five times more installations than initially projected by the government. Vietnam claimed 7.7% of the global PV market in .

5. Japan

As one of the most densely populated countries in the world, Japan has limited space to deploy solar panels. Despite this, Japan is still among the world&#;s leaders in total solar energy produced, with 8,7 GW of new installed capacity in .

After the Fukushima nuclear plant disaster in , Japan committed to solar energy as part of a plan to double its renewable energy by . Out of necessity, Japan found creative places to install solar panels. A boom in the popularity of golf in Japan in the s led to an overabundance of golf courses, many of which were completely abandoned as of . Many of these forgotten courses are now completely covered in photovoltaic products.

The island nation has also created floating &#;solar islands&#; with thousands of water-resistant solar panels. These next-generation solar farms have several advantages such as their ability to be efficiently cooled with water.

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